Objects as Truth are Subtle: Chih-i's Theory of Truth

Chart: Identity of the Threefold Course of Ignorance and the Threefold Virtuous Quality

　　┌──無明、愛、取=煩惱道──────────────────菩提→了因佛性──┐
三道│　行、有=業道─────────────────────────解脫→緣因佛性　│三德
　　└──識、名色、六入、觸、受、生、老死=苦道──法身→正因佛性──┘

(i) The three causal links ignorance as the cause in the past, desire and attachment as the cause in the present are ascribed by Chih-i to the Course of Affliction ( Fan-nao-tao 煩惱道 ). This is because ignorance as the cause in the past, and desire and attachment as the cause in the present, lead to the effect of present existence and future existence. Since there are the existences of saṃsāra, these three links are considered by Chih-i as the Course of Affliction. This course is identified with Bodhi-wisdom, which constitutes the meaning of the Buddha-nature as the Understanding Cause of Buddhahood. If one understands what ignorance is, ignorance will not arise. Such an understanding is Bodhi-wisdom, which is conducive to the attainment of enlightenment. Affliction and Bodhi-wisdom are identical to each other, in a sense that affliction is a necessary condition for one's wisdom to arise. (ii) The two links, volitional activity as the cause in the past and existence as the cause in the present, are ascribed by Chih-i to the Course of Karman ( Yeh-tao 業道 ). This is because volitional activity and existence are the conditions from which karman is formed. This course is identified with liberation ( Chieh-t'uo 解脫; Skt., vimokṣa ), which constitutes the meaning of Buddha-nature as the Conditional Cause of Buddhahood. The Course of Karman is evil, for it keeps one in the

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world of transmigration (Skt., saṃsāra ). Nevertheless, because of evil, one is motivated to aspire to cultivate practice in order to reach freedom from saṃsāra. In a sense that those karmic deeds are what inspire one to strive for liberation, karmic deeds and liberation are identical to each other. (iii) As the result of the previous two types of course ( affliction and karman ), the course of suffering is formed. Chih-i considers the Course of Suffering ( Ku-tao 苦道 ) as the combination of the five links as the effect in the present, i.e., consciousness, name-and-form, six senses, contact, and sensation, and the two links as the effect in the future, i.e., rebirth, and old age-and-death. This course is identified with the Dharma-body (Skt., dharmakāya ), which constitutes the meaning of the Buddha-nature as the Fundamental Cause of Buddhahood. Since the difference between suffering and dharmakāya is simply a production of discrimination in one's mind, the identification between the two is thus possible when one's mind no longer discriminates. Without mind discrimination, one realizes that suffering and dharmakāya are part of the same integrated reality. Chih-i concludes that this identification is made in view of the Middle Way, from which the meaning of the "Twelvefold Causality of Neither Origination Nor Extinction of the Inconceivable" is derived.[29]

Chart: The four types of Twelvefold Causality correspond to the Four Teachings

　　　　　　┌──思議生滅十二因緣──────────────界內法──────────三藏鈍根
　　　　　　│　思議不生不滅十二因緣───────────界內法──────────通教利根
四種十二因緣│　不思議生滅十二因緣─────────────界外法──────────別教鈍、利根
　　　　　　└──不思議不生不滅十二因緣─────────界外法──────────圓教利根

In his explanation of the four types of the Twelvefold Causality, what is stressed by

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Chih-i is that these four types are the result of the Buddha's teaching that caters to the disciples of the Four Teachings. Since the Twelvefold Causality is interpreted differently, these different types of interpretation should be classified, so that different levels of attainment that are derived from different types of interpretation of the Twelvefold Causality can be clarified. Obviously, these four different types of understanding can be distinguished as either coarse or subtle. In Chih-i's system, these four types of understanding indicate a gradual progress, which leads to final and supreme understanding of the Perfect Teaching. Thus, Chih-i regards the attainments of the śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas ( that are derived from the first three types of the Twelvefold Causality ) as coarse. This is because liberation is attained either by removing oneself from delusions, or by realizing emptiness of phenomena, or by eliminating ignorance. The last type of the Twelvefold Causality is subtle, because liberation is not attained by separating ignorance from liberation, but by recognizing a single reality in which the principle and the facts are perfectly integrated. In other words, the Threefold Course of Ignorance is identical to the Threefold Virtuous Quality of Buddhahood ( as stated above ). Since these two are the same reality, the Threefold Course of Ignorance can also be called the "Threefold Virtuous Quality" ( San-te 三德 ). A logical conclusion drawn from this identification is that one does not need to depart from the former in order to seek the latter. Since these two are identified as the same reality, the tendency for people to separate them as two different realities is prevented.

For Chih-i, the above distinction between the coarse and the subtle serves as a step to reach the final stage of reconciliation. While affirming the superiority of the Perfect Teaching, Chih-i does not mean to reject the other three teachings, as he regards all Buddhist doctrines whether coarse or subtle are the teaching of the Buddha. His goal of judging the coarse or subtle is to resolve differences among the Four Teachings. This is because only if all of the Four Teachings are affirmed to be valid, can all beings with various types of faculties be embraced by the teaching of the Buddha. Chih-i's conclusion is that the Ultimate Truth includes both coarseness and subtlety. In an absolute sense of opening the coarseness ( e.g. relative ) and revealing the subtlety ( e.g. ultimate ), and leading all sentient beings to attain universal liberation of Buddhahood, coarseness is subtlety, seeing that each of the three teachings ( Tripiṭaka, Common, and Separate ) is an indispensable step towards the attainment of Buddhahood. However, Chih-i asserts that this absolute sense of integrating the coarse and the subtle ( e.g. the

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three teachings are equally subtle as the Perfect Teaching ) only becomes transparent in the Lotus Sūtra, which directly conveys the real intention of the Buddha for universal salvation. The coarse is expedient means that serves to reveal the subtlety, and thus the former is relative and the latter is ultimate. The equal importance of the relative and the ultimate for Chih-i lies in the fact that only by relying on the relative can the ultimate be displayed, and only by aiming at the ultimate, is the relative valid.

The above is the description of the second category of Objects as Causes and Conditions. The Twelvefold Causality as one of the basic theories of truth in Buddhism ( that is meant to be the truth of pratyekabuddhas ) is interpreted by Chih-i in such a way that the content of it is greatly enriched corresponding to the Four Teachings. In other words, each of the Four Teachings is characterized by its own type of the Twelvefold Causality. The Tripiṭaka Teaching is characterized by the Twelvefold Causality of Origination and Extinction of the Conceivable; the Common Teaching by the Twelvefold Causality of Neither Origination Nor Extinction of the Conceivable; the Separate Teaching by the Twelvefold Causality of Origination and Extinction of the Inconceivable; and the Perfect Teaching by the Twelvefold Causality of Neither Origination Nor Extinction of the Inconceivable. Since these four different types of understanding the Twelvefold Causality are due to different capacities of beings, they result in four levels of attainment that can be classified into coarse or subtle. Since the level of attainment that belongs to the Perfect Teaching is exclusively subtle without any coarseness, the Lotus Sūtra that expounds on the Perfect Teaching is projected to be supreme. Chih-i's projection of the Perfect Teaching of the Lotus Sūtra as superior is for the purpose of reconciling differences among various theories of truth in Buddhism, so that the teaching of the Buddha can be viewed as a whole. For Chih-i, the teaching of the Buddha is subtle and inconceivable, because it embraces both coarseness and subtlety.

3.Chih-i's third category of elaborating truth is Objects as the Four Noble Truths.[30] According to Chih-i's theory, Objects as the Four Noble Truths ( Ssu-sheng-ti 四聖諦; Skt., catvāri āryasatyāni )[31] are understood in four ways corresponding to the Four

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Teachings. These four different interpretations of the Four Noble Truths[32] are scrutinized by Chih-i in terms of the dichotomized concept ── the principle and the phenomenal appearance or facts.

Chih-i points out that the reason the Four Noble Truths are understood in four different ways is due to various delusions disciples of the Four Teachings have. (i) The Four Noble Truths of Origination and Extinction ( Sheng-mieh Ssu-ti 生滅四諦 ) is the truth of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Disciples of the Tripiṭaka Teaching are heavily deluded with regard to emptiness as the Absolute Truth ( Mi-chen-chung 迷真重 ), and therefore, from the perspective of the phenomenal appearances as real existence, they can only understand the Four Noble Truths in terms of origination and extinction, and cause and effect. This means that the Truth of Accumulation is taken as the cause of suffering; the Truth of the Path is taken as the cause of reaching extinction; the Truth of Suffering is taken as the effect of the Accumulation; and the Truth of Extinction is taken as the effect of the Path.[33]

(ii) The Four Noble Truths of Neither Origination Nor Extinction ( Wu-sheng-mieh Ssu-ti 無生滅四諦 ) is the truth of the Common Teaching. Disciples of the Common Teaching are lightly deluded with regard to emptiness as the Absolute Truth ( Mi-chen-ch'ing 迷真輕 ), and therefore, from the perspective of the principle of emptiness, they are able to understand the Four Noble Truths in terms of neither origination nor extinction. This is to say, if everything is empty due to Dependent Origination, then origination of the phenomenal appearances cannot be sustained. Deducing from this principle of emptiness, if there is no origination of dharmas, there is no extinction of dharmas either. If there is neither origination nor extinction, the Four Truths are also empty of the characteristics of cause and effect.

(iii) While the former two types of understanding the Four Noble Truths are related to the Absolute Truth, the next two types of understanding the Four Noble Truths are related to the Middle Way. The bodhisattva s of the Separate Teaching are heavily deluded regarding the Middle Way ( Mi-chung-chung 迷中重 ), and from the perspective of phenomenal appearances, they understand the Four Noble Truths as bearing immeasurable marks. This is different from the perception of the disciples of the Tripiṭaka Teaching, for the bodhisattvas of the Separate Teaching have already perceived emptiness. Nevertheless, as they advance to perceive phenomenal appearances in their involvement in worldly affairs to save living beings, they are unable to perceive the principle of the Middle Way that underlies immeasurable facts. With the view of the Middle Way, one understands that one dharma contains all dharmas, and all dharmas are different aspects of one dharma. However, the bodhisattva of the Separate Teaching has not yet attained such a view of an integrated reality. Since he cannot view reality as a merging unity, to him, there are immeasurable dharmas in the phenomenal world that bear immeasurable marks. With regard to the Four Noble Truths, the bodhisattva sees that there are immeasurable types of suffering and causes of suffering, and therefore, there are also immeasurable paths to the extinction of suffering and immeasurable ways to reach extinction.[34] This method of understanding the Four Noble Truths belongs to the bodhisattva of the Separate Teaching, view ing the phenomenal world as the provisional existence for the sake of helping others. The feature of the immeasurability is unknown to the Two Vehicles, for what they strive to reach is the extinction of existence in order to attain enlightenment for themselves.

(iv) The Four Noble Truths of No-function ( Wu-tsuo Ssu-ti 無作四諦 ) is the truth of the Perfect Teaching. The bodhisattva of the Perfect Teaching are lightly deluded regarding the Middle Way ( Mi-chung-ch'ing 迷中輕 ),[35] and is endowed with supreme understanding of the Four Noble Truths. With the principle of the Middle Way, he understands that suffering and the cause of suffering result from one who mistakes bodhi as suffering, and nirvāṇa as birth-death. If one can use wisdom to identify suffering

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with bodhi, and birth-death with nirvāṇa, one is able to attain the path leading to the extinction of suffering and extinction. The non-distinction of the Middle Way conveys the true nature of reality, and renders the state of no-function. What Chih-i conveys is that the cause of suffering and the path to the extinction of suffering are derived from one's deluded mind of not being able to perceive the principle of the Middle Way. With the wisdom of the Middle Way, one is able to perceive that two opposite things are identical to each other, from which one attains realization. Since the identity of things is the true nature of reality and does not involve deliberate activity, this is the truth of no-function, which is synonymous with the One Ultimate Truth.[36]

Chart: Four types of Four Noble Truths correspond to the Four Teachin

　　　　┌──生滅四諦──────迷真重─────從事─────三藏教二乘
四種四諦│　無生滅四諦─────迷真輕─────從理─────通教人
　　　　│　無量四諦───────迷中重─────從事─────別教菩薩
　　　　└──無作四諦───────迷中輕─────從理─────圓教菩薩

Having illustrated the Four Noble Truths in four types, for Chih-i, it is necessary to classify these four types of understanding the Four Noble Truths into coarse or subtle. The coarseness and the subtlety are judged according to whether or not the three aspects in Buddhism, i.e., Chiao 教 ( teaching ), Hsing 行 ( practice ), and Cheng 證 ( realization ), are merged. "Teaching" refers to the teaching of the Buddha that guides beings to attain liberation. "Practice" refers to one's religious practice striving to attain liberation upon receiving the Buddha's teaching. "Realization" refers to one's realization of truth as a result of one's diligent practice. To Chih-i's understanding, each of the Four Teachings is constituted by these three aspects. However, if these three aspects are not integrated as an inseparable whole, the understanding of the Four Noble Truths is coarse. This refers to the three types of understanding that belong to the first three teachings ( Tripiṭaka, Common, and Separate ) that are classified as coarse. On the other hand, these three aspects are merged in the last understanding of the Four Noble Truths that belongs to Perfect Teaching, and therefore, the Four Noble Truths of No-function is subtle.

For Chih-i, the above differentiation of the coarse or subtle is for the purpose of reaching non-distinction, since the intention of the Buddha is for universal salvation. Ultimately speaking, the coarseness and the subtlety are all merged in the Lotus Sūtra, for the Buddha made decisive and clear that all of them are dissolved in the subtlety ( Chüeh-liao Ju-miao 決了入妙 ). Regardless of whether they are viewed as coarse or subtle, or neither coarse nor subtle, they all contain the ultimate intention of the Buddha in leading beings to attain Buddhahood. In this sense, the four types of the Four Noble Truths are of no difference. Chih-i describes this subtlety as unexplainable, explainable, both explainable and explainable, and neither explainable nor unexplainable:

(i) The "unexplainable" feature is taken to characterize superior level of attainment as positions, because if the four truths are viewed as unexplainable as they all contain the Ultimate Truth, this is the view of the Buddha, and the position of the Buddha is undoubtedly superior. (ii) The "explainable" feature refers to the theory of the Ultimate Truth. On the one hand, the Ultimate Truth is taken as the substance that embraces all dharmas, representing vastness of the substance. On the other hand, the theory of the Ultimate Truth can be explained in terms of the Ten Suchnesses as its characteristics and in terms of the Threefold Truth as its three aspects. (iii) The feature of both "explainable and unexplainable" is related to the length of function. On the one hand, the length of function refers to the Buddha's soteriological activity of saving beings, beginning from an incalculable past in the Origin until recent event of teaching the Lotus Sūtra in the Traces. On the other hand, for different capacities of beings, the Buddha expounds either the truth that can be conceptually understood, i.e., explainable, or the truth that is beyond conceptualization, i.e., unexplainable. (iv) The feature of "neither

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explainable nor unexplainable" denotes the inconceivability of the four truths, since the Ultimate Truth they contain cannot be conceptually conceived. In view of the inadequacy of language and of conceptual thoughts in conceiving the Ultimate Truth, the four truths cannot be defined by terms such as superior or vast, long or short, and sameness or difference. This is an integrated reality that everything is without difference, and is subtle.

The above is the description of Objects as the Four Noble Truths. The Four Noble Truths are understood in four different ways corresponding to the Four Teachings. In the Tripiṭaka Teaching, the Four Noble Truths are interpreted as Origination and Extinction; in the Common Teaching, the Four Noble Truths are interpreted as Neither Origination Nor Extinction; in the Separate Teaching, the Four Noble Truths are interpreted as Immeasurable; and in the Perfect Teaching, the Four Noble Truths are interpreted as No-function. We may say that the four types of the Twelvefold Causality is taken by Chih-i to reflect on different faculties of disciples of the Four Teachings; and the four ways of understanding the Four Noble Truths is taken by Chih-i to reflect on different types of truth expounded in the Four Teachings. This is to say, disciples of the Tripiṭaka and Common Teachings are with dull faculties, and truth for them is emptiness as the Absolute Truth; and disciples of the Separate and Perfect Teachings are with sharp faculties, and truth for them is the Middle Way. However, disciples of the Separate Teaching are more deluded in terms of the Middle Way. This means that the bodhisattvas can only see no-emptiness of dharmas with the view of the Middle Way, with which they are motivated to enter the mundane world to save beings, but cannot identify Emptiness with the Provisional Existence. On the other hand, disciples of the Perfect Teaching are able to perceive an integrated reality with the view of the Middle Way, and therefore, the Middle Way in the Perfect Teaching is the perfect view of reality. The significance of this perfect view of reality lies in the fact that it dissolves all differences among the Four Teachings, whereby the coarse or subtle teachings are merged into a single reality of the absolute subtlety. In addition, Chih-i adheres that the practical approach to such a perfect view of reality is by means of contemplating one's mind.

4.The fourth category Chih-i presents in elaborating truth is Objects as the Two

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Truths.[38] The Two Truths ( Erh-ti 二諦; Skt., satyadvaya ) refers to the Worldly Truth ( Shih-ti 世諦; Skt., saṃvṛtisatya ) and the Absolute Truth ( Chen-ti 真諦; Skt., paramārthasatya ). The Worldly Truth concerns empirical existence, and the Absolute Truth concerns emptiness of existence. The issue of the Two Truths preoccupied the Buddhist discourse before Chih-i. Therefore, Chih-i's interpretation of the Two Truths is his attempt to summarize systematically various views of the Two Truths and to present his own view of the Two Truths within the framework of the Four Teachings.

First of all, Chih-i proposes seven views of the Two Truths.[39] To sustain his categorization of these seven views, Chih-i regards a ll of them as being taught by the Buddha. However, Chih-i says that each of them is taught in three ways according to different circumstances, i.e., according to the intellectual capacities of beings ( Sui-ch'ing 隨情 ), both the intellectual capacities of beings and the knowledge of the Buddha ( Sui-ch'ing-chih 隨情智 ), and the knowledge of the Buddha ( Sui-chih 隨智 ) alone. (i) Sui-ch'ing Erh-ti 隨情二諦 (The Two Truths that is taught by the Buddha according to the intellectual capacities of audiences) is an expedient approach the Buddha takes to explain the two truths. Because of different feelings and dispositions of audiences, the Buddha's teaching of the Two Truths differs accordingly, in order to suit individual abilities, and to lead all living beings to attain enlightenment.[40] (ii) Sui-ch'ing-chih Erh-ti 隨情智二諦

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( The Two Truths that is taught by the Buddha according to the intellectual capacities of audiences and the knowledge of the Buddha ) is an approach mixture of expedient explanation ( according to the feelings and dispositions of audiences ) and the direct exposition of the Buddha's own knowledge. Teaching the Two Truths in accordance with the intellectual capacities of audiences is defined by Chih-i as the Worldly Truth, and the direct exposition of the insight of the Buddha as the Absolute Truth. The Absolute Truth is emphasized in contrast with the Worldly Truth.[41] (iii) Sui-chih Erh-ti 隨智二諦 ( The Two Truths that is taught by the Buddha according to the knowledge of the Buddha ) is an approach direct ly exposing the Buddha's own knowledge without expedient means. The Buddha's own knowledge concerns the principle of the Middle Way. With this principle, the Buddha conceives perfectly the integrated reality consisting of both the Absolute and the Worldly Truths. Hence, the Buddha makes no distinction between these two truths.[42]

Chih-i's elaboration of each of the seven views of the Two Truths (Ch'i-chung Erh-ti 七種二諦 ) is associated with the above indicated three approaches of the Buddha respectively, adding up to a total number of twenty-one views of the Two Truths.

Chart: The content of the seven views of the Two Truths

(i)The first view of the Two Truths is Shih-yo Erh-ti 實有二諦 (Two Truths of Real Existence). In this view, Chih-i explains that Worldly Truth concerns real existence, and Absolute Truth the extinction of real existence. Real existence as the Worldly Truth refers to all senses, sense-organs, and their objects. Emptiness as the Absolute Truth can only be attained through extinguishing these dharmas or entities as real existence.

Considering that t his view of the Two Truths of Real Existence takes dharmas in this spatial-temporal world as something really exists, it corresponds to the Tripiṭaka Teaching. This is because the Tripiṭaka Teaching holds that dharmas (or entities) as mundane phenomena are substantial.

(ii)The second view of the Two Truths is Huan-yu-k'ung Erh-ti 幻有空二諦 ( Two Truths of the Emptiness of Illusory Existence ). Chih- i's definition is that Worldly Truth

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refers to illusory existence, and Absolute Truth identif ies this illusory existence with emptiness of substantial Being. Chih-i says that t his view of the Two Truths rejects the validity of the first view of the Two Truths, because the meaning of the Worldly Truth and the Absolute Truth in the first view cannot be sustained simultaneously. If real existence as the Worldly Truth is presented, the Absolute Truth cannot be sustained, because the attainment of the Absolute Truth is based on the extinction of real existence. However, if real existence is extinguished, the Worldly Truth cannot be sustained. On the other hand, the Two Truths in the second view can be sustained, because illusory existence is taken as the Worldly Truth. This means that one does not have to extinguish existence in order to attain an encounter with the Absolute Truth. The illusory existence as the Worldly Truth indicates the meaning of non-substantiality of existence, and this meaning is the Absolute Truth. Therefore, these two truths are identical to each other. This view of emphasizing emptiness of existence corresponds to the doctrine of emptiness in the Common Teaching, because this teaching holds that existence is empty right therein due to its illusory nature.

(iii)The third view of the Two Truths is Huan-yu k'ung-pu-k'ung Erh-ti 幻有空不空二諦 (Two Truths of the Illusory Existence as Empty and not Empty). Chih-i defines that Worldly Truth refers to illusory existence, and identifying this illusory existence with both emptiness and not emptiness is the Absolute Truth. The content of the Worldly Truth is the same as in the above second view that takes illusory existence as the Worldly Truth, but, according to Chih-i, the content of the Absolute Truth entails three levels of understanding, forming three types of the Absolute Truth. These three types of Absolute Truth along with the respective type of the Worldly Truth form three types of the Two Truths. These three types of the Two Truths correspond to the doctrine of the Common Teaching ( T'ung 通 ), the Separate Teaching directing the Common ( Pieh-chieh-t'ung 別接通 ), and the Perfect Teaching directing the Common ( Yüan-chieh-t'ung 圓接通 ).[43]

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The Two Truths is spoken of in terms of outflow and no-outflow. Outflow is an expression for a person who still has defilement, and is taken by Chih-i to represent the Worldly Truth; and no-outflow refers to the person who has severed defilement and attained śrāvaka liberation, and is taken by Chih-i to represent the Absolute Truth.

(a) The first person of the Common Teaching considers "neither with outflow" as the Absolute Truth, and "nor without outflow" as to get rid of attachment to no-outflow. This level of attainment is to enter the state of no-outflow by destroying one's attachment to no-outflow.[44] ( b ) The second person, of the Separate Teaching directing the Common, advances from the viewpoint of the Common Teaching to that of the Separate Teaching. He considers "neither with outflow" and "nor without outflow" to be two extremes, and the Middle Way as the principle is identical to the Absolute Truth. However, this Middle Way is obtained by transcending either of the two extremes rather than by identifying "neither with outflow" with "nor without outflow".[45] ( c ) The third person of "the Perfect Teaching directing the Common" advances from the viewpoint of the Common Teaching to that of the Perfect Teaching. This means that one immediately realizes that the double negation of "neither with outflow nor without outflow" demonstrates the Middle Way of affirming all aspects of reality as an integrated unity.[46]

(iv)The fourth view of the Two Truths is Huan-yu I-ch'ieh Ch'ü K'ung-pu-k'ung Erh-ti 幻有一切趣空不空二諦 (Two Truths of the Illusory Existence, all tending toward Emptiness and No-emptiness). Chih-i explains that the Worldly Truth in this fourth view is the same as that in the second and third views of the Two Truths concerning illusory existence. The Absolute Truth means that illusory existence that is supposed to be empty is not empty. This is to say that although illusory existence is empty, from the perspective of the provisional existence, it is not empty. This type of the Two Truths corresponds with the Separate Teaching, for this teaching takes the provisional existence into account for the sake of saving living beings.

(v)The fifth view of the Two Truths is Huan-yu-wu, Pu-yu Pu-wu Erh-ti 幻有無、不有不無二諦 (Two Truths of Illusory Existence and Emptiness, and neither Existence nor Emptiness). Differed from the above three types of the Two Truths (from the second to the fourth one) that only take illusory existence as the Worldly Truth, Chih-i asserts that in this fifth view, the Worldly Truth identifies illusory existence with emptiness. The Absolute Truth is embodied in a double negation of existence and emptiness (e.g. neither existence nor emptiness ). This type of the Two Truths corresponds to the Separate Teaching.

(vi)The sixth view of the Two Truths is Yüan-ju-pieh Erh-ti 圓入別二諦 (The Two Truths of the Perfect entering the Separate). Chih-i says that the Worldly Truth in this sixth view is the same as in the above fifth one, but the Absolute Truth means n either existence nor emptiness, and all dharmas tending toward neither existence nor emptiness. However, Chih-i reminds us that no-emptiness as the Absolute Truth underlies different implications in the Separate and the Perfect Teachings. In the Separate Teaching, "no-emptiness" entails a diligent religious practice to realize the principle of no-emptiness. In order to reveal this principle, one has to utilize an expedient means of practicing cultivation. In the Perfect Teaching, however, "no-emptiness" means that this principle is not just the object to be cognized, but it is endowed with all Buddha-dharmas, i.e., the principle embraces all dharmas or entities in the empirical world.

(vii)The seventh view of the Two Truths is Yüan-chiao Erh-ti 圓教二諦 (Two

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Truths of the Perfect Teaching). Chih-i maintains that the Worldly Truth in this last view is the same as in the above fifth and sixth ones. The Absolute Truth, however, incorporates all views of emptiness and existence : "All dharmas that tend toward existence, emptiness, and neither existence nor emptiness, are the Absolute [Truth]."[47] This view is beyond conceptual understanding, for the Worldly and the Absolute Truths are mutually identified with each other. To be more specific, the inconceivability of the Two Truths means that they are not different, and yet, they are in polarity.

The above stated seven views of the Two Truths can apparently be classified into coarse or subtle, and are related to the Four Teachings. Chih-i maintains that besides the first one that is completely coarse and the last one that is subtle only, the rest of the views of the Two Truths from the second up to the sixth entail both coarse and subtle elements. Chih-i's way of judging their coarseness or subtlety is in accordance with the three approaches the Buddha employs to teach the Two Truths, viz., according to the intellectual capacities of audiences, according to the intellectual capacities of audiences and the knowledge of the Buddha, and according to the knowledge of the Buddha. These three approaches indicate a gradual progress ascending from the Tripiṭ-aka Teaching to the Common Teaching, to the Separate Teaching, and eventually to the Perfect Teaching. The first approach embodies the Tripiṭaka and Common Teachings, and is coarse; the second approach embodies the Separate Teaching, and is both coarse and subtle; and the last approach embodies the Perfect Teaching, and is exclusively subtle.

Accordingly, the seven views of the Two Truths are classified by Chih-i corresponding to these three approaches. With regard to the first and the second views of the Two Truths, they correspond to the Tripiṭaka and Common Teachings, and are classified into coarse, because they are taught in accordance with the intellectual capacities of audiences. With regard to the third up to the sixth views of the Two Truths, they are designated to the Separate Teaching ( since they are taught by the Buddha with the approach that accords with both the intellectual capacities of audiences and the knowledge of the Buddha ), and are classified into both coarse and subtle. The last view of the Two Truths corresponds to the Perfect Teaching ( since it is taught by the Buddha in accordance with the knowledge of the Buddha ), and is exclusively subtle.

Chart: Correspondence between the seven views of the Two Truths and the three ways of the Buddha's teaching ──coarse or subtle

Chih-i's examination of the seven views of the Two Truths in terms of coarse or subtle is his statement that various types of the Buddha's teaching result from different approaches the Buddha adopts in teaching truth. Chih-i's point is that although there are seven views of the Two Truths, they are interrelated with each other, seeing that the real intention of the Buddha is to eventually expound the truth according to the Buddha's own knowledge. This real intention of the Buddha is made known by means of opening the coarseness and revealing the subtlety ( which is accomplished in the ultimate teaching of the Lotus Sūtra ). Chih-i stresses that it is the Lotus Sūtra that brings the unification of the coarse and the subtle into completion. Chih-i emphasizes that not only all other teachings before the Lotus Sūtra were built up for the convenience of revealing the Ultimate Truth, but actually the first appearance of the Buddha from the incalculable past had already been determined for the revelation of the Lotus Sūtra. Why is the Lotus Sūtra so important? To Chih-i, it is because of its sudden revelation of the Ultimate Truth that enables all believers of both Śrāvakayāna and Mahāyāna to enter the terrace of the lotus blossom ( a representation of subtle enlightenment ) from their coarse stages ( i.e., the stage at which they are unable to conceive the Ultimate Truth ). With the teaching of the Lotus Sūtra, all disciples, whether they used to hearing one, two, three, or four types of the teaching, or even no teaching, are guaranteed to attain Buddhahood. This is the meaning of opening the coarseness and revealing the subtlety.

5. Chih-i's fifth category of elaborating truth is Objects as the Threefold Truth ( San-ti 三諦 ).[48] The formulation of the Threefold Truth is derived from the Two Truths, and

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is Chih-i's own system of understanding truth. First of all, Chih-i holds that there are five types of the Threefold Truth in reference to seven views of the Two Truths. Chih-i explains that the above first two views of the Two Truths are not in the scheme of the Threefold Truth, but the rest of the five views do contain the Middle Way, from which five types of the Threefold Truth ( Wu-chung San-ti 五種三諦 ) are formed. These five categories of the Threefold Truth are discussed in the light of the concept "outflow of defilement" ( Yu-lou 有漏; Skt., s āsrava ) (representing the view of the Worldly Truth) and "no-outflow of defilement" ( Wu-lou 無漏; Skt., anāsrava ) ( representing the view of the Absolute Truth ). These two phrases designate the phrase "neither with outflow nor without outflow" ( Fei-yu-lou Fei-wu-lou 非有漏非無漏 ), which is a comprehensive view of the Middle Way. However, in Chih-i's scheme of the five types of the Middle Way, each of them entails different implications.

(i)In the first type of the Threefold Truth Pieh-ju-t'ung San-ti 別入通三諦 ( Threefold Truth of the Separate Teaching Entering the Common Teaching ), "outflow of defilement" refers to the Worldly Truth, and "no-outflow of defilement" ( i.e., attainment of emptiness ) refers to the Absolute Truth. The double negation of these two aspects "neither with outflow nor without outflow" is taken as the Middle Way. According to Chih-i, this type of the Middle Way is only used as the means to prevent one from being attached to the view of Emptiness. This indicates that the Middle Way serves here as a compliment to a better understanding of emptiness: the view of Emptiness should not be attached to, for this view is also empty according to the doctrine of Dependent

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Origination.[49] Since this Middle Way serves as a better understanding of emptiness, it does not concern the bodhisattva entering the mundane world to save others, to which Chih-i uses the term "embrace all dharmas or entities" ( Pei-chu-fa 備諸法 or Chü-chu-fa 具諸法 ). This term implies that the function of the Middle Way should initiate a certain dynamical force with a soteriological implication to save living beings.

(ii)In the second type of the Threefold Truth Yüan-ju-t'ung San-ti 圓入通三諦 (Threefold Truth of the Perfect Teaching Entering the Common Teaching), the two truths are the same as those in the above first type, but the understanding of the Middle Way progresses. With the doctrine of the Perfect Teaching that is applied to perceive the Middle Way, Chih-i explains that this Middle Way embraces all dharmas, which means that the provisional existence is seen as no-emptiness. With the view of no-emptiness, the bodhisattva carries out soteriological activity in the mundane world to save others.

(iii)In the third type of the Threefold Truth Pieh San-ti 別三諦 ( Threefold Truth of the Separate Teaching ), the two truths are derived from the understanding of the provisional existence as existence and emptiness, or neither existence nor emptiness. Chih-i explains that the perception of these two aspects as duality ( i.e., existence and emptiness ) is taken as the Worldly Truth; the perception of these two as non-duality ( i.e., neither emptiness nor existence ) is taken as the Absolute Truth. This meaning of the Absolute Truth indicates the view of the Middle Way. This view of the Middle Way serves not to be attached to either the view of emptiness or the view of existence. Chih-i asserts that this Middle Way is merely the principle, but does not have a functional aspect.

(vi)In the fourth type of the Threefold Truth Yüan-ju-pieh San-ti 圓入別三諦 (Threefold Truth of the Perfect Teaching Entering the Separate Teaching), the two truths are the same as in the third type, concerning the provisional existence being existence and emptiness, or neither existence nor emptiness. Differing from the previous third category of the Middle Way that serves as a means to transcend the view of either existence or emptiness, this category of the Middle Way affirms the validity of both views of emptiness and existence. In Chih-i's terminology, this type of the Middle Way that embraces emptiness and existence is characterized as "being endowed with the Buddha-dharma", with which the bodhisattva is motivated to enter the mundane world to fulfill his task of liberating living beings.

(v)The fifth type of the Threefold Truth Yüan San-ti 圓三諦 ( Threefold Truth of the Perfect Teaching ) denotes an integration of all three aspects. This means that it is not just the Middle Way that embraces the Buddha-dharma as that in the previous fourth, but both the Worldly and the Absolute Truths embrace the Buddha-dharma as well. These three aspects that are merged as one reality are called "three is one" ( Chi-san Erh-i 即三而一 ); and the one reality that consists of three aspects is called "one is three" ( Chi-i Erh-san 即一而三 ). The Threefold Truth that is understood as an integrated unity of three in one and one in three belongs to the Perfect Teaching. This implies that all three truths ( the Worldly, the Absolute, and the Middle Way ) are endowed with the Buddha-dharma, and any one of them can function to initiate a certain dynamical force with a soteriological implication to save living beings.

Chart: Objects as five kinds of the Threefold Truth

五種三諦　　　　世諦　　　　真諦　　　　中道

1.別入通三諦：　有漏　　　　非有漏　　　非有漏非無漏──異空而已，中無功用，不備諸法

2.圓入通三諦：　有漏　　　　非有漏　　　非有漏非無漏具一切法──不空

3.別三諦：　　　有空　　　　非有非空　　對真中道──中，理而已

4.圓入別三諦：　有空　　　　非有非空　　點真中道──中，具足佛法

5.圓三諦：　　　具足佛法　　具足佛法　　具足佛法

Of these five types of the Threefold Truth, Chih-i judges the coarse or the subtle teachings of the Threefold Truth from the perspective of whether the teaching contains other aspects, such as the Common or the Separate Teaching ( as expedient means ). The first two types of the Threefold Truth are classified into coarse, because both of them contain expedient means of the Common Teaching. The third type of the Threefold Truth does not include the Common Teaching as expedient means, and therefore, is subtle. The fourth type is coarse, for it contains the Separate Teaching as expedient means. The last type is the subtlest teaching of the Threefold Truth, for it does not contain any expedient means.

Chart: The coarse or the subtle Five Types of the Threefold Truth

Furthermore, the five types of the Threefold Truth are classified by Chih-i into coarse or subtle in terms of the five dairy flavors corresponding to the five periods of the Buddha's teaching. (i) The first period of milk flavor, Avataṃsaka ( Hua-yen-shih 華嚴時 ), is a mixture of Separate, Perfect, and Common Teachings ( seeing that these three teaching are concerned with the Mahāyāna teaching ),[50] and contains three types of the Threefold Truth. Therefore, two types of the Threefold Truth ( that belong to the Separate and the Common Teachings ) are coarse, and one type of the Threefold Truth ( that belongs to the Perfect Teaching ) is subtle. (ii) The second period of cream flavor, Mṛgadāva ( Lu-yüan-shih 鹿苑時 ), is the Tripiṭaka Teaching,[51] and is coarse only. (iii) & (iv) The third and the fourth periods of curdled milk and butter flavor, Vaipulya ( Fang-teng Shih 方等時 ), and Prajñāpāramitā ( Po-jo-shih 般若時 ), are a mixture of Common, Separate and Perfect Teachings,[52] and contain five types of the Threefold Teaching. Therefore, the first four types of the Threefold Truth ( that belong to the Common and the Separate Teachings) are coarse, and the last type of the Threefold Truth of the Perfect Teaching is subtle. The fifth period of ghee flavor, Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-Mahāparinirvāna ( Fa-hua Nieh-p'an Shih 法華涅槃時 ), is the Perfect Teaching, because the Lotus Sūtra expresses only one type of the Threefold Truth of the Perfect Teaching. Therefore, this type of the Threefold Truth is relatively subtle ( in a sense that this subtlety is spoken of in contrast with the coarse teaching ).

Chih-i's distinction of coarseness and subtlety is for the purpose of reaching non-distinction by opening the coarse and revealing the subtle. According to Chih-i's interpretation, opening the coarse and revealing the subtle means that in the Lotus Sūtra, the Buddha made clear that although the three teachings (Tripiṭaka, Common, and Separate) are expedient means, they contain the Ultimate Truth in leading beings to reach the final teaching of the Lotus Sūtra. Therefore, in the Lotus Sūtra, these three teachings enjoy the same status as absolute subtlety like the Perfect Teaching, on the basis of the Ultimate Truth as the underlying principle of all the Four Teachings.

6.Chih-i's sixth category in elaborating truth is Objects as the One Truth. The One Truth is a logical deduction from the above-illustrated Threefold Truth. The One Truth is Chih-i's ultimate understanding of truth, which demonstrates that there is only one Ultimate Truth regarding the true nature of reality. From the perspective of one reality (that entails non-duality), Chih-i considers the Two Truths to be yet expedient means for the purpose of revealing the One Truth. This situation is compared with a metaphor quoted from the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra :

What is called the two truths is in fact one truth. It is called two as expedient means.[53] It is like a drunk person who has not yet vomited [and regained his sobriety], who sees the sun and the moon spinning around and says that there is a sun which is spinning around and a sun which is not spinning around.[54]

A sober person sees only that which is not spinning around and does not see the spinning.[55]

The above is the first major part of elaborating truth in six categories. These six categories of Objects as truth are presented by Chih-i in an endeavor to cover all theories of truth in Buddhism. Of these six categories, the first category of Objects as the Ten Suchnesses is derived from the Lotus Sūtra, and Chih-i takes the Ten Suchnesses as the characteristics of the Ultimate Truth. The Ten Suchnesses and the Ultimate Truth are spoken of in terms of the Ten Dharma-realms, for the Ten Suchnesses are embraced by each of the Ten Dharma-realms, and the Ultimate Truth permeates everywhere throughout the Ten Dharma-realms. Since the Ten Dharma-realms are divided by Chih-i into four groups, there are also four groups of definition of the Ten Suchnesses. The Ten Suchnesses that characterize the Ultimate Truth and consist of the Threefold Truth Emptiness, Provisional Existence, and the Middle Way are Chih-i's own conception of objective reality that can best portray the Ultimate Truth.

Objects as the Twelvefold Causality, the Four Noble Truths, and the Two Truths enumerated by Chih-i from the second to the fourth categories are conventional theories of truth. However, with Chih-i's interpretation, it is no longer a simple reiteration of the conventional conception of truth in a narrow sense. Conventionally, the Twelvefold Causality is the truth of the pratyekabuddha, and the Four Noble Truths are the truth of the śrāvaka. The Two Truths is the Mādhyamika theory of truth, centering on the relationship between the Worldly and the Absolute. Chih-i presents these three categories of Objects in such a broad framework that each of them could be the path leading towards enlightenment in various levels. To Chih-i, the meaning of these three types of truth is not fixed, but is depending on how people understand these truths.

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Various levels of understanding truth are systematized by Chih-i into four types corresponding to the Four Teachings.

In terms of Objects as the Twelvefold Causality, it can be understood as Origination and Extinction of the Conceivable that results in a level of attainment belonging to the Tripiṭaka Teaching, as Neither Origination and Nor Extinction of the Conceivable that results in a level of attainment belonging to the Common Teaching, as Origination and Extinction of the Inconceivable that results in a level of attainment belonging to the Separate Teaching, and as Neither Origination Nor Extinction of the Inconceivable that results in a supreme level of attainment belonging to the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Objects as the Four Noble Truths, it can be understood as Origination and Extinction that results in a level of attainment belonging to the Tripiṭaka Teaching, as Neither Origination Nor Extinction that results in a level of attainment belonging to the Common Teaching, as the Immeasurable that results in a level of attainment belonging to the Separate Teaching, and as No-function that results in a supreme level of attainment belonging to the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Objects as the Two Truths, Chih-i summarized seven views. (i) The Two Truths that is understood as Real Existence belongs to the level of attainment of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. (ii) The Two Truths that is understood as Emptiness of Illusory Existence belongs to the level of attainment of the Common Teaching. (iii) The Two Truths that is understood as Illusory Existence being Empty and not Empty belongs to the level of attainment of the Common Teaching directing the Separate Teaching. (iv) The Two Truths that is understood as Illusory Existence and all dharmas tending toward Emptiness and No-emptiness belong to the level of attainment of the Common Teaching directing the Perfect Teaching. (v) The Two Truths that is understood as Illusory Existence and Emptiness, and neither Existence nor Emptiness belong to the level of attainment of the Separate Teaching. (vi) The Two Truths that is understood as Illusory Existence and Emptiness, neither Existence nor Emptiness, and all dharmas tending toward neither Emptiness nor No-emptiness belong to the level of attainment of the Separate Teaching directing the Perfect Teaching. (vii) The Two Truths that is understood as Illusory Existence and Emptiness, all dharmas tending toward Existence, Emptiness, and neither Existence nor Emptiness belong to the level of attainment of the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Objects as the Threefold Truth, for Chih-i, it is the best and most

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succinct formula in expressing the Ultimate Truth. While the formula of the Two Truths tends to dichotomize things, the Threefold Truth provides a solution to avoid dualistic thinking. With the Threefold Truth, one is able to perceive reality comprehensively and perfectly. Since reality is everywhere without limitation, and is embraced by all entities and the whole Dharma-realm, one's view is also vast and broad, and one's mind can instantaneously embrace the whole universe. For Chih-i, the ultimate goal of this perfect conception of reality is not only a matter of attaining Buddhahood, but it also motivates the bodhisattva to enter the mundane world to save living beings. This functional aspect of aiming at universal salvation ( as the result of perfect conception of truth ) is of prime significance. With this intention, Chih-i presents five categories of the Threefold Truth. (i) The Threefold Truth that is understood as Outflow, No-outflow, and Neither Outflow Nor No-outflow belongs to the level of attainment of the Common Teaching directing the Separate Teaching. (ii) The Threefold Truth that is understood as Outflow, No-outflow, Neither Outflow Nor No-outflow that embraces all dharmas belongs to the level of attainment of the Common Teaching directing the Perfect Teaching. (iii) The Threefold Truth that is understood as Existence and Emptiness, Neither Existence Nor Emptiness, and the Middle Way posited at the Absolute Truth belongs to the level of attainment of the Separate Teaching. (iv) The Threefold Truth that is understood as Existence and Emptiness, Neither Existence Nor Emptiness, and specifying the Absolute Truth as the Middle Way belongs to the level of attainment of the Separate Teaching directing the Perfect Teaching. (v) The Threefold Truth that is understood as an integrated unity of three in one and one in three belongs to the Perfect Teaching.

The last category of Objects as the One Truth concludes various categories of Objects as truth, stressing that there is only one Ultimate Truth. In Chih-i's understanding of truth, truth itself is abstract, it does not have a fixed term, and it cannot be understood conceptually. Therefore, truth can only be presented in relation to the understandings of beings. Only with the supreme ability of understanding, can one fully conceive truth. With this assumption, Chih-i not only systematically presents various categories of Objects as truth, but also offered us a system of classifying various levels of attainment that are associated with these truths. It is one's ability of understanding truth that determines one's level of attainment.

Furthermore, by classifying various levels of understanding truth into coarse or subtle, Chih-i tells us that although truth is always the same, beings do have different

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faculties, and as a result, their achievements are also different. Hence, the coarseness or the subtlety does not concern truth itself, but is the consequence of various abilities of beings. However, if one strives to attain Buddhahood, the understanding of truth that belongs to the Perfect Teaching is superior to others. With such an understanding, one is able to realize truth perfectly.

By opening the coarse and displaying the subtle, Chih-i goes a step further to remind us that one should not dwell on differences, for all levels of understanding truth are valid as all beings can eventually attain Buddhahood. This is to emphasize the message of universal salvation of all living beings delivered in the Lotus Sūtra.

Chart: Specific correlation between the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable and the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds

General correlation ( Tsung-tui 總對 ) correlates the Ten Suchnesses with the Twelvefold Causality by dividing the former into three groups. Correspondingly, the Ten Suchnesses are also divided into three. This is to specify the meaning of the Ten Suchness of the six worlds in the context of the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable based on the above-stated correlation. (i) In the first group, nature ( as the foundation for karman to arise ), conditions ( that help to increase karman ), and power ( that is capable of producing karman ) refers to ignorance, desire, attachment. (ii) In the second group, appearance ( as the external being of affliction ), function ( that produces karman ), causes ( that are capable of producing various kinds of consciousness when they are combined with various links ), effects ( that are the habitual effects caused by the attachment to the state of desire ), and retributions ( that are the suffering resulting from effects ) are grouped together to refer to volitional activity and existence. (iii) In the third group, substance ( that reflects substantial state of suffering ) refers to consciousness, name-and-form, the six senses, contact, sensation, rebirth, and old age-and-death.[62]

Chart: General correlation between the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable and the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds

(2)The second group of correlation is between the Twelvefold Causality of the Inconceivable and the Ten Suchnesses of the four levels of sagehood. The Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable and the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds are considered by Chih-i as negative elements because they keep one in the world of transmigration. On the other hand, the Twelvefold Causality of the Inconceivable can be considered as positive elements linking to Buddhahood. For Chih-i, the positive elements are derived from nothing else but negative elements ( due to the transformation of the latter ), and thus, sustain the formation of the Ten Suchnesses of the sages. This is to correlate the Twelvefold Causality with the Ten Suchnesses by turning the former, as the negative element, into the positive element in order to denote the Ten Suchnesses of the sages. The Twelvefold Causality is divided into six groups correlating with six groups of the Ten Suchnesses of the sages respectively. (i) Ignorance that turns into wisdom denotes the nature of its suchness of the sages, for every being inherently possesses wisdom, and the revelation of wisdom is derived from one's recognition of ignorance. (ii) Evil volitional activity that turns into wholesome volitional activity denotes the appearance of its suchness of the sages. This is because by breaking through evil, wholesomeness is

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established, which signifies the accumulation of meritorious deeds as the appearance of the sages. (iii) The Course of Suffering ( consciousness, name-and-form, contact, and sensation, rebirth, and old age-and-death ) that turns into dharmakāya denotes the substance of its suchness of the sages. This is because all beings possess the Ultimate Truth of having pure and tranquil mind of Buddhahood, which penetrates the true reality of non-polarity ( i.e., there is no-distinction between suffering and dharmakāya ). This inherent Ultimate Truth within beings is the Buddha-nature as the Fundamental Cause for Buddhahood, and is taken by Chih-i to denote substance of the sages. (iv) Desire and attachment that turn into bodhi-mind of the sages denote the power of its suchness of the sages. This is because it is desire and attachment that drive beings to pursue enlightenment instead of mundane affairs, and thus, denotes the power of the sages. (v) Existence that turns into practice of the Six Perfections denotes the function, causes, and conditions of its suchness of the sages. This is because it is existence that sustains one's undertaking practices with the great vow for self-enlightenment and enlightening others as function, knowledge and wisdom as causes, and blessings and virtues as conditions of the sages. (vi) Old age-and-death that turns into the Dharma-nature of constant abiding denotes the effects and retributions of its suchness of the sages. This is because by pursuing Buddhist practice, instead of facing ordinary old age and death, one is able to enjoy repetitive effects of the state of unsurpassed enlightenment as the effect of the sages, and nirvāṇa as the retribution of the sages.

Chart: Correlation between the Twelvefold Causality of the Inconceivable and the Ten Suchnesses of the four levels of the sage

(3) The third group of correlation deals with general function of the three suchnesses ( substance, power, and function ), and further explicates the formation of the correlation stated in the previous second group. This implies that the correlation between the Twelvefold Causality of the Inconceivable and the Ten Suchnesses of the sages are the result of the function of these three dharmas, since these three dharmas are regarded by Chih-i to be identical to the Threefold Course of Ignorance. When the Threefold Course of Ignorance turns, it is identical to the dharmakāya that represents substance, the bodhi-mind that represents power, and the practice of the Six Perfections that represents function. Consequently, the formation of the Ten Suchnesses of the sages is the result of one's practice of these three dharmas. By diligently practicing these three categories of dharma, internally, they form nature of its suchness; externally, they form appearance of its suchness. The proper mind without deviant thought forms substance of its suchness. The profound vow the Buddha made long time ago forms power of its suchness. The establishment of practice forms function of its suchness. The subsequent effect forms causes of its suchness. What is auxiliary forms conditions of its suchness. To subdue false views and to aspire to attain enlightenment form effects of its suchness and retributions of its suchness.[63]

Chart: Functional aspect of the three dharmas in forming the Ten Suchnesses of the sages

2.The second major group of correlation is between Objects as the Four Noble Truths and Objects as the Ten Suchnesses and Twelvefold Causality, which expand the first major group of correlation to include the Four Noble Truths.[64] This is to first correlate four types of the Four Noble Truths with Ten Suchnesses, and to secondly correlate four types

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of the Four Noble Truths with four types of the Twelvefold Causality. By such a correlation, four types of the Four Noble Truths are defined by the Ten Suchnesses and the Twelvefold Causality.

(1)With regard to the correlation between four types of the Four Noble Truths and Ten Suchnesses, the former is divided into two groups corresponding to the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds and the Ten Suchnesses of the four levels of sagehood. Therefore, there are four groups of correlation between these two categories of Objects. (i) First, Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of Origination and Extinction and in the Four Noble Truths of Neither Origination Nor Extinction are correlated with the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds. The second type of the Four Noble Truths is briefly called by Chih-i as No-origination ( Wu-sheng 無生 ). Since these two types of truth address the characteristics of the transmigration, they can be defined by the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds. (ii) Second, the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of Origination and Extinction and in the Four Noble Truths of No-origination are correlated with the Ten Suchnesses of the four levels of sagehood. Since these two types of truth address both the way of attainment and the characteristics of the transcendental world, they can be defined by the Ten Suchnesses of the four sages. (iii) Third, Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of the Immeasurable and in the Four Noble Truths of No-function are correlated with the Ten Suchnesses of the four levels of sagehood. This is because these two types of truth are no longer associated with the characteristics of the world of transmigration. Instead, they convey the supreme level of conception of truth that belongs to the bodhisattva of the Separate Teaching and of the Perfect Teaching. (iv) Fourth, the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of the Immeasurable and in the Four Noble Truths of No-function are correlated with the Ten Suchnesses of the four levels of sagehood. This is because these two types of truth address the state of nirvāṇa that is beyond the three realms, and therefore, can be defined by the Ten Suchnesses of the four sages.

Chart: Correlation between two groups of the Four Noble Truths and two groups of the Ten Suchnesses

(2)With regard to the correlation between four types of the Four Noble Truths and four types of the Twelvefold Causality, there are also four groups of correlation. In terms of the Twelvefold Causality that belongs to the Conceivable, it is defined by the origination of the twelve links; in terms of the Twelvefold Causality that belongs to the Inconceivable, it is defined by the extinction of the twelve links. (i) First, Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of Origination and Extinction and of No-origination that pertain to origination of dharmas in the empirical world are defined by the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable in terms of origination. (ii) Second, the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of Origination and Extinction and of No-

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origination that pertain to extinction of dharmas in the empirical world are defined by the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable in terms of extinction. (iii) Third, Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths as the Immeasurable and as No-function that belong to the transcendental level concerning origination of dharmas are defined by the Twelvefold Causality of the Inconceivable in terms of origination. (iv) Fourth, the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths as the Immeasurable and as No-function that belong to the transcendental level concerning extinction of dharmas are defined by the Twelvefold Causality of the Inconceivable in terms of extinction.

Chart: Correlation between two groups of the Four Noble Truths and two groups of the Twelvefold Causality

3.The third major group of correlation is between Objects as the Two Truths and Objects as the Ten Suchnesses, Twelvefold Causality, and Four Noble Truths, which expands the above correlation to include the Two Truths.[65] What the seven views of the Two Truths denote become transparent in its correlation with the Ten Suchnesses, the Twelvefold Causality, and the Four Noble Truths.

(1)The first group of correlation is between seven views of the Two Truths and Ten Suchnesses. In this group of correlation, the Worldly Truth in the seven views of the Two Truths is grouped into three types corresponding to the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds, of the Two Vehicles ( śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas ), and of the nine Dharma-realms. This implies that (i) the Worldly Truth, in the first four views of the Two Truths

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that concern existence or illusory existence of the six worlds of transmigration, is defined by the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds. (ii) The Worldly Truth, in the fifth and in the sixth views of the Two Truths that address emptiness of illusory existence is defined by the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds and of the Two Vehicles. The aspect of illusory existence is associated with the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds, since the world of transmigration is illusory; and the aspect of emptiness is associated with the Ten Suchnesses of the Two Vehicles, since reaching emptiness is the goal of the Two Vehicles. (iii) The Worldly Truth in the Two Truths of the Perfect Teaching that delineates emptiness of illusory existence is defined by the Ten Suchnesses of the nine-realms. Seeing that the aspect of illusory existence is associated with the six worlds, and the aspect of emptiness is associated with the realms of the Two Vehicles and of the bodhisattva, the Worldly Truth of the Perfect Teaching can then be related to the nine-realms. (iv) On the other hand, the Absolute Truth in the seven views of the Two Truths is grouped into two types corresponding to the Ten Suchnesses of the Two Vehicles, and of the nine Dharma-realms. This means that the Absolute Truth, in the first two views of the Two Truths that addresses extinction of existence or emptiness of illusory existence, is defined by the Ten Suchnesses of the Two Vehicles. The Absolute Truth, in the last five views of the Two Truths that contain the Middle Way, is defined by the Ten Suchnesses of the Buddha-realm, since the view of the Middle Way belongs to the Perfect Teaching of Buddhahood.

Chart: Correlation between the Two Truths and the Ten Suchnesses

(2)The second group of correlation is between seven views of the Two Truths and four types of the Twelvefold Causality. In this group of correlation, the Worldly Truth, in the seven views of the Two Truths that are grouped into three types, corresponds to the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable in terms of origination and extinction, and to the four types of the Twelvefold Causality in terms of origination. (i) The Worldly Truth in the first four views of the Two Truths can be defined by the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable in terms of origination, since the former that concerns existence or illusory existence is characterized by the latter that indicates origination of dharmas. (ii) The Worldly Truth in the fifth and six views of the Two Truths can be defined by the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable in terms of origination or extinction, since the former that elucidates emptiness of illusory existence is associated with the latter that indicates origination and extinction of dharmas. (iii) The Worldly Truth in the Two Truths of the Perfect Teaching can be defined by the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable and of the Inconceivable in term of origination, considering that the former that concerns emptiness of illusory existence is the perfect view of the empirical world, and is addressed by all four types of the Twelvefold Causality. On the other hand, the Absolute Truth, in the seven views of the Two Truths that is divided into two types, corresponds to the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable and of the Inconceivable. This means that (iv) the Absolute Truth in the first two views of the Two Truths can be defined by the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable in terms of extinction, since the former that concerns extinction of existence or emptiness of illusory existence is addressed by the latter. (v) The Absolute Truth in the last five views of the Two Truths can be defined by the Twelvefold Causality of the Inconceivable in terms of extinction, since the former contains the view of the Middle Way as the state of nirvāṇa, which is addressed by the latter.

Chart: Correlation between seven views of the Two Truths and four types of the Twelvefold Causality

(3)The third group of correlation is between seven views of the Two Truths and four types of the Four Noble Truths. In this group of correlation, seven views of the Two Truths are defined in the context of the four types of the Four Noble Truths. The Four Noble Truths are divided into two groups: Suffering and Accumulation as one group, and the Path and Extinction as another. (i) The first view of the Two Truths can be defined by the Four Noble Truths of Origination and Extinction, since both belong to the level of understanding corresponding to the Tripiṭaka Teaching. (ii) The second view of the Two Truths can be defined by the Four Noble Truths of No-origination, for both belong to the level of understanding corresponding to the Common Teaching. (iii) In terms of the third view of the Two Truths, the Worldly Truth that concerns illusory existence can be defined by Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of No-origination, as both are related to the view of illusory existence. The Absolute Truth that concerns illusory existence as emptiness and no-emptiness can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of the Immeasurable, because both reflect the view of the Separate Teaching that entails the bodhisattva's involvement in the provisional existence of saving beings. (iv) In terms of the fourth view of the Two Truths, the Worldly Truth that concerns illusory existence can also be defined by Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of No-origination, seeing that both are related to

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the view of illusory existence. The Absolute Truth that concerns emptiness of illusory existence as no-emptiness can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of No-function, given that both belong to the view of the Middle Way of the Perfect Teaching. (v) In terms of the fifth view of the Two Truths, the Worldly Truth that identifies illusory existence with emptiness can be defined by Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of the Immeasurable, since both belong to the view of the provisional existence of the Separate Teaching. The Absolute Truth that concerns illusory existence as neither existence nor emptiness can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of the Immeasurable, as both are related to the view of the Separate Teaching that transcends two extreme views of either existence or emptiness. (vi) In terms of the sixth view of the Two Truths, the Worldly Truth that identifies illusory existence with emptiness can be defined by Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of the Immeasurable, since both belong to the view of the provisional existence of the Separate Teaching. The Absolute Truth that indicates the Middle Way of embracing all dharmas can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of No-function. This is because both are the views of the Middle Way of the Perfect Teaching, and this Middle Way reveals the reality that is both empty and provisional. (vii) In terms of the last view of the Two Truths, the Worldly Truth that identifies illusory existence with emptiness can be defined by Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of No-function, since both reflect supreme level of conceiving reality that belong to the Perfect Teaching. The Absolute Truth that indicates the Middle Way of embracing all dharmas can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of No-function, as both are the view of the Middle Way of the Perfect Teaching that views reality as non-distinction of all dharmas.

Chart: Correlation between seven views of the Two Truths and four types of the Four Noble Truths

4.The fourth major group of correlation is between Objects as the Threefold Truth and Objects as the Ten Suchnesses, Twelvefold Causality, Four Noble Truths, and Two Truths, which expands the above correlation to include the Threefold Truth.[66] What the Threefold Truth denotes becomes transparent in relation to the Ten Suchnesses, the Twelvefold Causality, the Four Noble Truths, and the Two Truths.

(1)The first group of correlation is between five kinds of the Threefold Truth and Ten Suchnesses. Basically, the Worldly Truth in the first two types of the Threefold Truth that concerns the outflow of defilement ( i.e., existence ) is correlated with the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds, since both are related to the view of existence. In terms of the Worldly Truth in the third and fourth types of the Threefold Truth, the aspect of existence is correlated with the Ten Suchnesses of the six worlds, as both are related to the view of existence; and the aspect of emptiness is correlated with the Ten Suchnesses of the Two Vehicles, as both are related to the view of emptiness. The Worldly Truth in the fifth type of the Threefold Truth is correlated with the Ten Suchnesses of the nine realms, since the former embraces all dharmas, and the latter concerns the characteristics of all dharmas. The Absolute Truth in the five types of the Threefold Truth is correlated with the Ten Suchnesses of the Two Vehicles and the Ten Suchnesses of the bodhisattva, since both are related to the view of Emptiness and the Provisional Existence. The Truth of the Middle Way in the five types of the Threefold Truth belongs solely to the Ten Suchnesses of the Buddha-realm, since both of them concern the state of the Buddha.[67]

Chart: Correlation between five types of the Threefold Truth and the Ten Suchnesses in the Ten Dharma-realms

(2)The second group of correlation is between five kinds of the Threefold Truth and four

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types of the Twelvefold Causality. In this correlation, (i) the Worldly Truth in the five types of the Threefold Truth is defined by the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable, since both of them concern the view of existence. (ii) The Absolute Truth in the five types of the Threefold Truth is correlated with the Twelvefold Causality of the Conceivable and of the Inconceivable in terms of extinction, since both reflect the view of emptiness that is conceivable, and the view of neither existence nor emptiness that is inconceivable. (iii) The Middle Way in the five types of the Threefold Truth is correlated solely with the Twelvefold Causality of the Inconceivable in terms of extinction, since both reflect supreme understanding of truth that belongs to the Separate and Perfect Teachings.[68]

Chart: Correlation between five kinds of the Threefold Truth and four types of the Twelvefold Causality

(3)The third group of correlation is between five kinds of the Threefold Truth and four types of the Four Noble Truths. In this group of correlation, (i) the Worldly Truth in the first two types of the Threefold Truth can be defined by Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of No-origination, since both concern illusory existence. The Worldly Truth in the last three types of the Threefold Truth can be defined by Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of No-origination ( as both concern illusory existence ), by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of No-origination ( as both concern emptiness of existence ), and by Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of the Immeasurable ( as both concern no-emptiness of existence ). (ii) The Absolute Truth in the first two types of the Threefold Truth can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of No-origination, as both concern the view of emptiness of existence. The Absolute Truth in the third and fourth types of the Threefold Truth, that concern the provisional existence as neither existence nor emptiness,

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can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of No-origination ( as both reflect the view of emptiness of existencen ), and by Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of the Immeasurable ( as both reflect the view of no-emptiness of existence ). The Absolute Truth in the last type of the Threefold Truth, that embraces the Worldly Truth and the Middle Way, can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of No-origination ( as both are related to the view of emptiness of existence ), by Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of the Immeasurable ( as both are related to the view of no-emptiness of existence ), and by Suffering and Accumulation in the Four Noble Truths of No-function ( as both pertain to the view of the Middle Way – the supreme level of conceiving reality ). (iii) The Middle Way in the first type of the Threefold Truth that concerns neither existence nor emptiness can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of the Immeasurable, since both serve to transcend extreme views of Emptiness and the Provisional Existence. The Middle Way in the second type of the Threefold Truth that embraces all dharmas can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of No-function, since both confirm that reality consists of emptiness and the provisional existence. The Middle Way in the third type of the Threefold Truth, that concerns neither existence nor emptiness, can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of the Immeasurable, since both serve to transcend extreme views of either emptiness or existence. The Middle Way in the fourth type of the Threefold Truth that embraces all dharmas can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of No-function, since both confirm that reality consists of emptiness and the provisional existence. The Middle Way in the last type of the Threefold Truth that embraces all dharmas can be defined by the Path and Extinction in the Four Noble Truths of No-function, since both have the all-embracing feature, whereby non-distinction of all dharmas is confirmed.[69]

Chart: Correlation between five kinds of the Threefold Truth and four types of the Four Noble Truths

(4)The fourth group of correlation is between five kinds of the Threefold Truth and seven views of the Two Truths. The correlation between these two categories of Objects excludes the first two views of the Two Truths, for the latter does not contain the Middle Way. In terms of the third and the fourth views of the Two Truths, the Worldly Truth is correlated with the Worldly Truth in the five types of the Threefold Truth, as both concern illusory existence. The Absolute Truth concerns illusory existence being both existence and emptiness, and no-emptiness. As for the aspect of emptiness indicated by the Absolute Truth, it is correlated with the Absolute Truth in the five types of the Threefold Truth; and the aspect of no-emptiness is correlated with the Middle Way in the five types of the Threefold Truth. In terms of the last three views of the Two Truths, the Worldly Truth concerns illusory existence as emptiness. As for the aspect of existence indicated by the Worldly Truth, it is correlated with the Worldly Truth in the five types of the Threefold Truth; and the aspect of emptiness is correlated with the Absolute Truth in the five types of the Threefold Truth. The Absolute Truth that contains the Middle Way is correlated with the Middle Way in the five types of the Threefold Truth.[70]

Chart: Correlation between five kinds of the Threefold Truth and seven views of the Two Truths